English Language Training and Critical Literacy for International Business and Tourism Students in the Amazon: An Exploratory Scoping Review

Globalization necessitates robust linguistic and critical reading competencies for students specializing in international business and tourism within the Amazonian context. This exploratory review, conducted by a multidisciplinary team from the National Autonomous University of the Upper Amazon (UNAAA) and the San Marcos National University (UNMSM), examines educational programs across the region.¹ Utilizing the scoping review methodology of Arksey and O'Malley (2005), the study analyzed literature from Web of Science, Scopus, SciELO, and ERIC.⁹ The findings indicate three primary problematic areas: a pervasive linguistic gap where of students remain at basic user levels (A1 and A2), a lack of critical reading skills in both the native (L1) and foreign (L2) languages, and a significant curricular disarticulation where of programs isolate language training from professional content.¹ Despite these challenges, successful integrated models at the Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM) and the National University of the Peruvian Amazon (UNAP) demonstrate the transformative potential of contextualized, interdisciplinary projects.¹ The report concludes with strategic recommendations aimed at institutional restructuring, specialized teacher training in ESP, and the development of regional educational policies that bridge the gap between global standards and local Amazonian pertinence.¹

The development of professional linguistic competencies in the Amazon must be grounded in several robust theoretical frameworks that address the specific needs of the region's students. These frameworks include English for Specific Purposes (ESP), Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC), Critical Literacy, and the growing body of Decolonial Theory in higher education.¹

The discipline of ESP emerged as a response to the need for language instruction tailored to specific professional and academic domains. Unlike General English, ESP is founded on a rigorous analysis of the communicative needs of the learner.¹² Hutchinson and Waters (1987) established that ESP should be a "learning-centered approach" that considers the target situation—where the language will be used—and the learning situation—the constraints and motivations of the classroom.¹ In the Amazonian context, ESP for tourism and business must move beyond basic hospitality phrases to include a sophisticated lexicon related to biodiversity, non-timber forest products, and sustainable development.¹⁶

Terminology is the bedrock of ESP. For tourism students, this includes a typology of terms that range from professional and scientific language (e.g., "carrying capacity," "niche markets") to "transterms" that have migrated from other fields (e.g., "sustainability," "eco-certification").¹⁶ Furthermore, the rise of "pseudo-terms" in the digital age, such as "gramping" or "foodist," requires students to possess a high degree of linguistic flexibility.¹⁶ Effective ESP instruction ensures that students can navigate these specialized discourses, allowing them to engage in technical discussions within their specific field of specialization.¹⁷

For Amazonian professionals, language is not merely a tool for information exchange but a medium for cultural mediation. Byram (1997) proposed the model of Intercultural Communicative Competence, which posits that a successful communicator requires more than linguistic mastery.¹ The model includes five "savoirs":

1. Savoir être: Attitudes of curiosity and openness, and a readiness to suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about one's own.
2. Savoirs: Knowledge of social groups and their products and practices in one's own and in one's interlocutor's country.
3. Savoir comprendre: Skills of interpreting and relating, specifically the ability to interpret a document or event from another culture and explain it and relate it to documents or events from one's own.
4. Savoir apprendre/faire: Skills of discovery and interaction, encompassing the ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices.
5. Savoir s'engager: Critical cultural awareness, allowing for an evaluation of perspectives, practices, and products in one's own and other cultures.¹

This framework is particularly relevant for tourism students who must mediate between international visitors and local communities. It empowers them to represent Amazonian culture accurately without succumbing to the "exoticism" often demanded by global tourism markets.¹

Critical literacy, as defined by scholars such as Cassany (2006) and Luke (2014), goes beyond literal comprehension to include the deconstruction of power relations within a text.¹ It involves identifying the author's purpose, recognizing ideological biases, and evaluating the evidence presented.²¹ For students in the Amazon, reading the "word" and the "world" are inseparable processes.²² When reading an international trade report or a corporate sustainability plan, students must be able to identify whose voices are included and whose are marginalized.²¹

Developing critical reading in English (L2) is a recursive process. It requires the activation of cognitive strategies such as hypothesis construction and inference while simultaneously managing the linguistic demands of decoding a second language.⁵ The challenge for Amazonian institutions is to foster these high-level cognitive skills despite the initial linguistic barriers faced by students.¹

The internationalization of higher education often creates a tension between global standards and local relevance. Knight (2008) defines internationalization as the integration of an international dimension into the research and teaching functions of post-secondary institutions.¹ However, in peripheral regions like the Amazon, this process can lead to "epistemic subordination," where Western knowledge systems are prioritized over local and ancestral wisdom.²⁴

Decolonial theory, advanced by thinkers like Mignolo (2018) and Mbembe (2016), calls for a "de-linking" from the tyranny of abstract universals.¹ In education, this means creating a "bidirectional intercultural" approach where English is used not just to consume Western knowledge, but to communicate the value of Amazonian perspectives to the rest of the world.¹ It is about ensuring that Amazonian professionals are "protagonists of their own story".³

To characterize the state of English language training and critical literacy in the region, this study utilized the scoping review methodology proposed by Arksey and O'Malley (2005).⁹ This approach is specifically designed to map the extent, range, and nature of research activity in a particular field, identifying gaps in existing literature.¹⁰

The review followed a rigorous five-stage process:

1. Identification of the Research Question: The primary query focused on the advances, limitations, and opportunities in the formation of linguistic and critical competencies for Amazonian business and tourism students.¹
2. Identification of Relevant Studies: A comprehensive search was conducted in databases including Web of Science, Scopus, SciELO, and ERIC.¹ Keywords included "ESP," "English for Specific Purposes," "International Business," "Tourism," "Amazon*," "Critical Reading," and "Higher Education".¹
3. Study Selection: Inclusion criteria were restricted to peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2024, focusing on higher education in the Amazon or comparable peripheral contexts.¹ Studies focusing exclusively on basic education or indigenous languages without a connection to English were excluded.¹
4. Charting the Data: Information was organized according to key themes, including linguistic competency levels, critical reading dimensions, and curricular models.²⁸
5. Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting Results: An inductive thematic analysis was applied to synthesize the findings into the three core problematic areas identified in the report.¹

This methodology allowed for a synthesis of evidence that respects the diverse cultural and institutional contexts of the Amazon, avoiding reductive generalizations.¹

The analysis of diagnostic data from universities across the Amazonian region reveals a significant gap between the linguistic levels achieved by students and the requirements of the international labor market.

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) provides a standardized scale for measuring language proficiency, ranging from A1 (Beginner) to C2 (Mastery).¹⁷ In sectors like international business and tourism, a minimum level of B2 (Upper-Intermediate) is typically required for professional effectiveness.¹

A diagnostic evaluation of students across Amazonian institutions between 2020 and 2023 shows a heavily skewed distribution toward basic levels.¹

Table 1: Distribution of English Proficiency Levels among Amazonian Students (2020-2023)

The data indicates that of students are classified as "Basic Users" (A1 or A2). At these levels, students are largely limited to memorized phrases and very simple social exchanges.²⁹ Only of the sampled population reaches the B2 level or higher required by the global market.¹ This "linguistic bottleneck" significantly hampers the ability of graduates to secure positions in international firms or to manage high-end sustainable tourism initiatives.

The review identifies that of programs implement the "Communicative Approach," which focuses on interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study.¹ However, more specialized methods like Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) are used by only of programs, and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is used by a mere .¹ While of programs report utilizing technology, this is often limited to the digital distribution of materials rather than interactive or immersive learning experiences.¹

The failure of these methodologies to produce higher proficiency levels is attributed to several factors:

• Insufficient Curricular Time: Most programs offer between 120 and 180 total hours of instruction, which is mathematically insufficient to move a student from level A1 to B2.¹
• Initial Baseline Gaps: Students often enter university with extremely limited English backgrounds, placing a heavy burden on higher education institutions to perform remedial training.¹
• Lack of Contextualization: The use of generic "Global English" materials often leads to low student motivation, as the content lacks relevance to the Amazonian professional reality.¹

A significant finding of the review is that the challenges faced by students in critical reading are not exclusively linguistic. There is a "transfer effect" where difficulties in analyzing text in the native language (L1) are exacerbated when working in the second language (L2).¹

Diagnostic assessments measured student performance across five dimensions of critical reading on a scale of 1.0 to 5.0.¹

Table 2: Critical Reading Competencies Gap Analysis (Scale 1-5)

The data reveals that even in the native language, students do not reach a level of "Excellence" (typically 4.0 or higher) in any dimension. The score of 2.9 for "Identifying Ideological Biases" in L1 suggests that students possess a fundamentally acritical approach to reading.¹ When this is combined with an English proficiency level of 2.0, students become essentially "discourse-blind" in an international context, making them unable to effectively analyze contracts, regulations, or market reports.¹

Innovative strategies to address this gap include the use of "Multilingual Reading Circles," where students compare texts in L1 and L2 to bridge the comprehension gap.¹ Explicit instruction in metacognitive strategies—planning how to approach a text and monitoring one's own comprehension—has been shown to increase scores by up to in intervention studies.¹ Furthermore, the application of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) allows students to question the power structures inherent in tourism brochures or corporate annual reports.¹

The structural organization of language programs within the university plays a decisive role in the development of professional competencies. The scoping review identified four distinct curricular models currently in use in the Amazon.¹

Table 3: Curricular Models and Perceived Effectiveness in Amazonian Institutions

The overwhelming majority of programs () utilize the "Sequential Disarticulated" model, which is the least effective. In these cases, students often pass their English credits without ever learning how to apply that language to a professional scenario.¹ In contrast, the "Holistic Integrated Curriculum" (Model 4) demonstrates the highest effectiveness by ensuring that language learning is situated within authentic professional tasks.¹

A cornerstone of Model 4 is the use of "Integrative Projects" (Proyectos Integradores).³⁴ Unlike a final capstone project, these are often incremental and start early in the degree.³³ They require students to synthesize knowledge from multiple disciplines to solve a real-world problem. For example, in the "Amazon Business Plan" project at the National University of Ucayali, students must conduct market research in Spanish/Portuguese, develop an international marketing strategy, and present the final plan in English.¹ This approach has been found to significantly increase student "self-efficacy" and reduce "linguistic anxiety," as the focus shifts from grammatical perfection to communicative effectiveness.¹

While the overall picture presents significant challenges, several institutions have developed innovative programs that serve as models for the region.

The Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM) developed a specialized ESP program focused on forest products and ecotourism.¹ By moving away from generic business English and focusing on the specific value chains of the Amazon (e.g., açaí, sustainable timber, community-based tourism), the program achieved a increase in communicative competence compared to traditional models.¹ The program's success is attributed to its "locally grounded" curriculum, which validates students' existing knowledge while equipping them with the linguistic tools to share that knowledge internationally.³

The National University of the Peruvian Amazon (UNAP) implemented a project focusing on river tourism in the Loreto region.¹ Students were provided with contextualized materials that used the Amazon River as the primary setting for learning. This was combined with pre-professional practices where students served as bilingual assistants for international researchers and tourists.¹ This "situated learning" model ensured that students could immediately see the value of their linguistic training in a professional context.³⁶

The Amazon State University (UEA) of Ecuador utilized virtual exchange platforms to connect its students with international peers in the USA and Europe.¹ Through collaborative projects on sustainable tourism, students were forced to use English as a medium for authentic problem-solving. These interactions not only improved linguistic fluency but also developed "Intercultural Communicative Competence" by exposing students to different perspectives on environmental conservation and tourism management.¹

The training of Amazonian professionals cannot be understood outside the context of the power dynamics inherent in the global knowledge economy.

"Epistemic subordination" refers to the process by which Western knowledge systems marginalize or devalue non-Western ways of knowing.²⁴ In business and tourism education, this often manifests as the assumption that the "correct" way to manage a company or run a hotel is defined exclusively by models from the Global North.¹ This creates a "sense of hermeneutical gloom" among Amazonian students who may feel that their local realities are "incorrect" or "backward".¹⁴

A decolonial approach to English teaching aims to reverse this. It treats English not as a medium for Westernization, but as a "de-linked" tool that Amazonian people can use to assert their own epistemic authority.¹⁴ This involves training students to be "active agents" who can re-appropriate global technologies like AI and international trade frameworks to serve local interests.³⁹

While "Epistemic Independence" is often a goal of decolonial movements, scholars suggest that "Epistemic Interdependence"—the recognition that knowledge is always built through interaction with others—is a more realistic and productive framework.⁴⁰ For Amazonian students, this means recognizing that they need English to access canonical texts and modern scholarly work, but that international scholars also need Amazonian traditional knowledge to address global crises like climate change.⁴¹

This creates a "bidirectional intercultural" relationship. Amazonian professionals become mediators who can translate the complex ecological and cultural "signs" of the forest into the language of global science and business, while also translating international standards into practices that are culturally appropriate for their communities.¹

Based on the findings of this exploratory review, the following recommendations are proposed at three key levels.

• Holistic Integration: Universities must move away from sequential models toward integrated curricula where English and critical reading are woven into professional projects.¹ This requires the creation of "interdisciplinary teaching teams" that include both language specialists and business/tourism faculty.¹
• Contextualized Pedagogical Materials: Institutions should invest in the development of textbooks and digital resources that utilize Amazonian case studies, ensuring that learning is always situated in a relevant context.⁵
• Infrastructure and Technology: Investment in high-speed connectivity and digital learning labs is essential to provide students with access to international discourse communities and virtual exchange opportunities.¹

• ESP and CLIL Certification: Educators must be trained in specialized methodologies such as Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT).¹
• Intercultural Competence: Faculty should undergo training in decolonial pedagogy and intercultural communication, allowing them to foster a classroom environment that values both local and global knowledge systems.¹
• Communities of Practice: Institutions should facilitate networks where teachers can share "Open Educational Resources" (OER) and successful pedagogical interventions.¹

• Integrated Linguistic Frameworks: Regional governments should establish language standards for tourism and business that are aligned with the CEFR but adapted to the specific needs of the Amazon.¹
• Articulation with the Productive Sector: Policies should encourage formal partnerships between universities and the sustainable business sector, ensuring that student "Integrative Projects" address real-world industry challenges.¹
• Strategic Investment in Human Capital: Financial incentives and scholarships should be provided for students and faculty pursuing advanced linguistic and critical training, with a focus on retaining this talent within the region.¹

The training of students in English and critical literacy within the Amazonian international business and tourism sectors is a complex challenge that requires a fundamental shift in educational paradigm. This review has demonstrated that the current "linguistic gap"—where the vast majority of students remain at basic levels—is compounded by a lack of critical reading skills and a disarticulated curricular structure. However, the successful experiences of institutions like UFAM and UNAP provide a clear roadmap for transformation.

The path forward lies in the adoption of holistic, integrated, and contextualized models that recognize English not as an end in itself, but as a strategic tool for regional empowerment. By fostering professionals who can read the "world" of global commerce through the "word" of the English language, Amazonian institutions can ensure that their graduates are not merely passive consumers of global narratives, but active protagonists in the construction of a sustainable future. The historical responsibility of these institutions is to empower a new generation of Amazonian experts who can mediate between the local and the global, valuing their ancestral wisdom while navigating the complexities of the 21st-century international market. This is the essence of a truly decolonized and effective higher education: one that prepares students to narrate new stories about the Amazon—stories characterized by sustainability, equity, and a profound commitment to biocultural conservation.¹

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